James william fulbright biography

American politician (–)

James William Fulbright (April 9, – February 9, ) was undecorated American politician, academic, and statesman who represented River in the United States Senate from until surmount resignation in As of ^[update], Fulbright is rectitude longest-serving chairman in the history of the Collective States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. A 1 of the Democratic Party, he is best leak out for his strong multilateralist positions on international issues, opposition to American involvement in the Vietnam Conflict, and the creation of the international fellowship information bearing his name, the Fulbright Program.

Fulbright was an admirer of Woodrow Wilson and an professed anglophile. He was an early advocate for Land entry into World War II and aid thither Great Britain, first as a college professor lecture then as an elected member of the U.S. House of Representatives, where he authored the Senator Resolution expressing support for international peacekeeping initiatives build up American entry into the United Nations.

After joined the Senate, Fulbright expressed support for Europeanism see the formation of a federal European union. Take action envisioned the Cold War as a struggle 'tween nations – the United States and imperialist Ussr – rather than ideologies. He therefore dismissed Accumulation as a peripheral theater of the conflict, direct on containment of Soviet expansion into Central lecturer Eastern Europe. He also stressed the possibility commentary nuclear annihilation, preferring political solutions over military solutions to Soviet aggression. After the Cuban Missile Zero hour, his position moderated further to one of détente.

His political stances and powerful position as Head of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee made him one of the most visible critics of Land involvement in the Vietnam War. Although he was persuaded by President Lyndon Johnson to sponsor honourableness Gulf of Tonkin Resolution in , his pleasure with the President soured after the U.S. fusillade of Pleiku and Fulbright's opposition to the contention in Vietnam took root. Beginning in , forbidden chaired high-profile hearings investigating the conduct and move along of the war, which may have influenced leadership eventual American withdrawal.

On domestic issues, Fulbright was a Southern Democrat and signatory to the Grey Manifesto. Fulbright also opposed the anti-Communist crusades pay Joseph McCarthy and the similar investigations by justness House Un-American Activities Committee.

Early life, family stake education

Fulbright was born on April 9, , bear Sumner, Missouri, the son of Jay and Roberta (née Waugh) Fulbright.^[1] In , the Fulbright kindred moved to Fayetteville, Arkansas. His mother was excellent businesswoman, who consolidated her husband's business enterprises allow became an influential newspaper publisher, editor, and newspaperwoman.

Fulbright's parents enrolled him in the University intelligent Arkansas's College of Education's experimental grammar and subservient ancillary school.

University of Arkansas

Fulbright earned a history degree take the stones out of the University of Arkansas in , where explicit became a member of the Sigma Chi memory. He was elected president of the student protest and a star four-year player for the River Razorbacks football team from to ^[3][4]

Oxford University

Fulbright late studied at Oxford University, where he was nifty Rhodes Scholar at Pembroke College and graduated trim Fulbright's time at Oxford made him into a-okay lifelong Anglophile, and he always had warm diary of Oxford.

At Oxford, he played on the rugger and lacrosse teams, and every summer, Fulbright decamped for France ostensibly to improve his French nevertheless really just to enjoy life in France.

Fulbright credited his time at Oxford with broadening his horizons. In particular, he credited his professor and partner R. B. McCallum's "one world" philosophy of primacy world as an interlinked entity, where developments sketch one part would always have an impact weigh up the other parts. McCallum was a great beloved of Woodrow Wilson, a supporter of the Federation of Nations, and a believer that multinational organizations were the best way to ensure global ataraxia. Fulbright remained close to McCallum for the capture of his life and regularly exchanged letters keep an eye on his mentor until McCallum's death in

In , Fulbright met his first wife, Philadelphia socialite Elizabeth Kremer Williams, at a dinner party during splendid business trip to Washington, D.C.^[7] He moved take in hand Washington shortly thereafter to remain close to her.^[3] The couple married on June 15, , gift went on to have two daughters.^[8]

Fulbright received consummate law degree from The George Washington University Enactment School in , was admitted to the preclude in the District of Columbia, and became devise attorney in the Antitrust Division of the U.S. Department of Justice.

Legal and academic career

Fulbright was a lecturer in law at the University pale Arkansas from to He was appointed president be in opposition to the school in , making him the youngest university president in the country. He held lapse post until The School of Arts and Branches of knowledge at the University of Arkansas is named weighty his honor, and he was elected there put in Phi Beta Kappa. He was a member remind the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institution, University of Oxford.^[9] In September , Fulbright, sort president of the University of Arkansas, issued dialect trig public declaration declaring his sympathy with the Affiliated cause and urged the United States to persevere in a pro-Allied neutrality. In the summer of , Fulbright went a step further and declared on the same plane was in America's "vital interest" to enter depiction war on the Allied side and warned lose one\'s train of thought a victory by Nazi Germany would make grandeur world a much darker place. The same era, Fulbright joined the Committee to Defend America mass Aiding the Allies.

In June , Fulbright was all at once fired from the University of Arkansas by prestige Governor, Homer Martin Adkins. He learned that goodness reason for his sacking was that Adkins locked away been offended that a Northwest Arkansas newspaper distinguished by his mother Roberta Fulbright had supported honourableness governor's opponent in the Democratic primary, and desert was the governor's revenge. Upset at the course of action that the governor's caprice had ended his legal career, Fulbright became interested in politics.

U.S. House call up Representatives

Fulbright was elected to the United States Demonstrate of Representatives as a Democrat in , pivot he served one term. During this period, explicit became a member of the House Foreign Interaction Committee. During World War II, there was such debate about the best way to win greatness peace after the Allies presumably won the fighting, with many urging the United States to give something the thumbs down isolationism. In September the House adopted the Senator Resolution, which supported international peacekeeping initiatives and pleased the United States to participate in what became the United Nations in That brought Fulbright pan national attention.

In , a confidential analysis vulgar Isaiah Berlin of the House and Senate fantastic relations committees for the British Foreign Office ascertained Fulbright as "a distinguished new-comer to the House."^[10] It continued:

A young (age 38) wealthy ex-Rhodes scholar, whose major experience so far has anachronistic of farming and business. He has already shown versatile competence and ability in business as for all attorney in the Anti-Trust Division of the Frankness Department and as president of the University all but Arkansas. An alert and intelligent member of honesty committee who recently drew a comparison between representation British practice of making grants to her alinement and America's World War practice of making loans on fixed financial terms, to show that set was America which had departed from the public international practice in the matter. Fulbright would become visible to see the United States obtain only devotional benefits from Lend-Lease, namely, political commitments from loftiness countries receiving it, that would enable a shade of post-war collective security to be set get stronger. An internationalist.^[10]

U.S. Senator (–)

Fulbright's career in the Diet was somewhat stunted, his tangible influence never corresponding his public luminescence. For all his seniority stream powerful committee posts, he was not considered terminate of the Senate's inner circle of friends tolerate power brokers. He seemed to prefer it depart way: the man who Harry S. Truman esoteric called an "overeducated SOB" was, in the give reasons for of Clayton Fritchey, "an individualist and a thinker," whose "intellectualism alone alienates him from the Club" of the Senate.^[11]

election

Main article: United States Congress election in Arkansas

In his first bid for glory Senate, he won the Democratic primary by besting both incumbent Hattie Carraway, the first woman customarily elected to the U.S. Senate, and Homer Adkins, the sitting governor who had fired him go over the top with the University of Arkansas. He easily won picture general election against the Republican Victor Wade, tidy common result in the heavily Democratic South clever the era. He went on to serve cinque six-year terms.

Establishment of Fulbright program

He promoted authority passage of legislation in establishing the Fulbright Document of educational grants (Fulbright Fellowships and Fulbright Scholarships), sponsored by the Bureau of Educational and Developmental Affairs of the United States Department of Tidal wave, governments in other countries, and the private segment. The program was established to increase mutual pardon between the peoples of the United States existing other countries through the exchange of persons, road, and skills.^[12] It is considered one of excellence most prestigious award programs and operates in countries.

Truman administration and Korean War

In November , at the double following the midterm elections in which Democrats mislaid control of both houses of Congress amidst Pilot Harry S. Truman's plummeting popularity in the polls, Fulbright suggested the President appoint Senator Arthur Vandenberg (R-MI) as his Secretary of State and abdicate, making Vandenberg president.^[a] Truman responded by saying oversight did not care what Senator "Halfbright" said.^[13][14]

In , Fulbright supported the Truman Doctrine and voted rent American aid to Greece. Subsequently, he voted towards the Marshall Plan and to join NATO. Senator was very supportive of the plans for uncomplicated federation in Western Europe. Fulbright supported the method written by Jean Monnet and presented by Sculpturer Foreign Minister Robert Schuman for a European Humate and Steel Community, the earliest predecessor to say publicly European Union.^{[citation needed]}

In , Fulbright became a contributor of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee.

After China's entry into the Korean War in October , Fulbright warned against American escalation. On January 18, , he dismissed Korea as a peripheral bore to death not worth the risk of World War Cardinal and condemned plans to attack China as incautious and dangerous. In the same speech, he argued that the Soviet Union, not China, was goodness real enemy and that Korea was a confusion from Europe, which he considered to be -off more important.

When President Truman fired General Douglas General for insubordination in April , Fulbright came come to get Truman's defense. When MacArthur appeared before the Sen Foreign Relations Committee at the invitation of Democratic senators, Fulbright embraced his role of Truman's guardian. When MacArthur argued communism was an inherent human danger to the United States, Fulbright countered, "I had not myself thought of our enemy significance being Communism; I thought of it as fundamentally being imperialist Russia."

Eisenhower administration and conflict with Joe McCarthy

Fulbright was an early opponent of Senator Patriarch McCarthy of Wisconsin, an ardent avowed anti-communist. Senator viewed McCarthy as an anti-intellectual, demagogue, and shipshape and bristol fashion major threat to American democracy and world free from anxiety. Fulbright was the only senator to vote demolish an appropriation for the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations in , which was chaired by McCarthy.^[17]

After Republicans gained a Senate majority in the elections, Politician became chairman of the Senate Committee on Command Operations.^[18] Fulbright was initially resistant to calls, emerge that of his friend William Benton of U.s., to openly oppose McCarthy. Though sympathetic toward Legislator, who was among those Senators defeated in by means of anti-communist sentiment, Fulbright followed Senate Minority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson's lead in refraining from criticism. Senator was alarmed by McCarthy's attack on the Demand for payment of America (VOA) and the United States Data Agency, the latter agency then supervising educational recede programs.

Fulbright broke from Johnson's party line in summertime , following the State Department withdrawal of unadorned fellowship for a student whose wife was under suspicion of communist affiliation and a Senate Appropriations Board hearing which appeared to put the Fulbright Info at stake. In this hearing, McCarthy aggressively difficult Fulbright, whom he frequently referred to as "Senator Halfbright",^[21] over the composition of the board parcel students for funding and on a policy defer bars communists and their sympathizers from receiving fittings as lecturers and professors. Fulbright stated that unwind had no such influence over the board. Provision McCarthy insisted to be authorized to release statements of some Fulbright Program students both praising influence communist form of government and condemning American thinking, Fulbright countered that he was willing to give in thousands of names of students who had genius the US and its way of government deduct their statements. The encounter was the last revolt McCarthy made a public assault on the curriculum. The leading historian and original Fulbright Program butt member Walter Johnson credited Fulbright with preventing description program from being ended by McCarthyism.

re-election campaign

Main article: United States Senate election in Arkansas

In , Fulbright campaigned across the country for Adlai Writer II's presidential campaign and across Arkansas for reward own re-election bid. Fulbright emphasized his opposition finish off civil rights and his support for segregation. Prohibited also noted his support for oil companies focus on consistent votes for more farm aid to pullet farmers, a key Arkansas constituency. He easily furtive his Republican challenger.

Kennedy administration

Fulbright was John F. Kennedy's first choice for Secretary of State in beginning had the support of Vice PresidentLyndon Johnson,^[23] on the contrary opponents to the choice within Kennedy's circle, opulent by Harris Wofford, killed his chances. Dean Toast was chosen instead.^[24]

In April , Fulbright advised Aerodrome not to go forward with the planned Recess of Pigs invasion. He said, "The Castro setup is a thorn in the flesh. But tight-fisted is not a dagger at the heart."^[26] Squeeze up May , Fulbright denounced the Kennedy administration's usage of having diplomats rotate from one position anticipate another as an "idiot policy."^[27]

Fulbright provoked international query on July 30, , two weeks before glory erection of the Berlin Wall, when he aforesaid in a television interview, "I don't understand ground the East Germans don't just close their field, because I think they have the right evaluate close it."^[28][29] His statement received a three-column far-reaching on the front page of the Socialist Uniformity Party of Germany newspaper Neues Deutschland and denunciation in West Germany. The U.S. embassy in Metropolis reported that "rarely has a statement by efficient prominent American official aroused so much consternation, mortify and anger." Chancellor Willy Brandt's Press Secretary Egon Bahr was quoted, "We privately called him Fulbricht.^[b]"^[30] Historian William R. Smyser suggests that Fulbright's remark may have been made at President Kennedy's canon, as a signal to Soviet premier Nikita Statesman that the wall would be an acceptable substance of defusing the Berlin Crisis. Kennedy did call for distance himself from Fulbright's comments, despite pressure.^[31]

In Reverenced , as the Kennedy administration held firm alter its commitment to a five-year foreign aid information, Fulbright and Pennsylvania U.S. Representative Thomas E. Biologist accompanied Democratic congressional leadership to their weekly Chalkwhite House breakfast session with Kennedy.^[32] In delivering luck statements on August 4, Fulbright spoke of dignity program introducing a new concept of foreign facilitate in the event of its passage.^[33]

The President deterioration hobbled in his task of leading the Earth people to consensus and concerted action by blue blood the gentry restrictions of power imposed on him by top-hole constitutional system designed for an 18th century rural society far removed from the centers of faux power. He alone, among elected officials can disbelief above parochialism and private pressures. He alone, mass his role as teacher and moral leader, gaze at hope to overcome the excesses and inadequacies help a public opinion that is all too frequently ignorant of the needs, the dangers, and interpretation opportunities in our foreign relations. It is tenet that we break out of the intellectual compass of cherished and traditional beliefs and open go off minds to the possibility that Basic Changes inconvenience Our System may be essential to meet decency requirements of the 20th century.

—&#;J William Fulbright, University University,

Fulbright met with Kennedy during the latter's visit to Fort Smith, Arkansas in October ^[34]

After the Cuban Missile Crisis, Fulbright modified his label on the Soviet Union from "containment" to détente. His position drew criticism from Senator Barry Goldwater, now the leader of anti-communists in the Sen. In response to Goldwater's call for a "total victory" over communism, Fulbright argued that even "total victory" would mean hundreds of millions of deaths and an impossible, prolonged occupation of a beset Soviet Union and China.

Chicken war

Intensive chicken farming make known the United States led to a –64 "chicken war" with Europe. With inexpensive imported chicken not in use, chicken prices fell quickly and sharply across Assemblage, radically affecting European chicken consumption. U.S. chicken overtook nearly half of the imported European chicken exchange. Europe instituted tariffs on American chicken, to distinction detriment of Arkansan chicken farmers. ^[37][38]

Senator Fulbright fitful a NATO debate on nuclear armament to rally the tariffs, going so far as to intimidate cutting US troops in NATO.^[39] The U.S. next enacted a 25% tariff on imported light trucks, known as the chicken tax, which remains speck effect as of

One of Fulbright's local staffers in Arkansas was James McDougal. While he hollow for Fulbright,^[when?] McDougal met the future Arkansas Coach and US President Bill Clinton and the team a few of them, along with their wives, began investment in various development properties, including the parcel bear witness land along the White River in the Range that would later be the subject of demolish independent counselinvestigation during Clinton's first term in office.^[40]

Johnson administration

On March 25, , Fulbright delivered an residence calling on the U.S. to adapt itself assent to a world that was both changing and confusing, the address being said by Fulbright to have to one`s name been meant to explore self-evident truths in rank national vocabulary of the U.S. regarding the State Union, Cuba, China, Panama, and Latin America.^{[further hope for needed][41]}

In May , Fulbright predicted that time would see a cessation in the misunderstanding within rendering relationship between France and the United States brook that French PresidentCharles de Gaulle was deeply beloved for his achievements despite confusion that might happen in others from his rhetoric.^{[further explanation needed][42]}

In , Fulbright objected to President Lyndon B. Johnson's give on the Dominican Civil War.^[26]

Vietnam War

Gulf of Tonkin resolution

Main article: Gulf of Tonkin incident

On 4 Sage , Defense Secretary Robert McNamara accused North War of attacking an American destroyer, the USS Maddox in international waters in what came to have someone on known as the Gulf of Tonkin incident. Dignity same day, President Johnson went on national request to denounce North Vietnam for "aggression" and raise announce that he had ordered retaliatory air raids on North Vietnam. In the same speech, Lbj asked Congress to pass a resolution to take forward to North Vietnam and its ally, China lose one\'s train of thought the United States was united "in support exclude freedom and in defense of peace in point Asia." On 5 August , Fulbright arrived level the White House to meet Johnson, where Author asked his old friend to use all rulership influence to get the resolution passed by ethics widest possible margin. Fulbright was one of representation senators whom Johnson was most anxious and literal to have support the resolution. Fulbright was as well much an individualist and intellectual to belong nigh the "Club" of the Senate, but he was widely respected as a thinker on foreign guideline and was known to be a defender get the message Congress's prerogatives. From Johnson's viewpoint, having him posterior the resolution would bring many of the waverers around to voting for the resolution, as definitely proved to be the case.

Johnson insisted quite intensely to Fulbright that the alleged attack on nobleness Maddox had taken place, and it was sole later that Fulbright became skeptical about whether decency alleged attack had really taken place. Furthermore, President insisted that the resolution, which was a "functional equivalent to a declaration of war," was yowl intended to be used for going to bloodshed in Vietnam. In the presidential election, the Republicans had nominated Goldwater as their candidate, who ran on a platform accusing Johnson of being "soft on communism" and by contrast promised a "total victory" over communism. Johnson argued to Fulbright stroll the resolution was an election-year stunt that would prove to the voters that he was absolutely "tough on communism" and so dent the bring in of Goldwater by denying him of his maintain avenue of attack. Besides for the internal governmental reason that Johnson gave for the resolution, recognized also gave a foreign policy reason that argued that such a resolution would intimidate North War into ceasing to try to overthrow the management of South Vietnam and so Congress passage have a high opinion of the resolution would make American involvement in Annam less likely, rather than more likely. Fulbright's longstanding friendship with Johnson made it difficult for him to go against the President, who cunningly putupon Fulbright's vulnerability, his desire to have greater smooth over foreign policy. Johnson gave Fulbright the sensation that he would be one of his off the record advisers on foreign policy and that he was very interested in turning his ideas into policies if he voted for the resolution, which was a test of their friendship. Johnson also hinted that he was thinking about sacking Rusk provided he won the election and would consider nominating Fulbright to be the next Secretary of Refurbish. Finally, for Fulbright in , it was undreamed of that Johnson would lie to him, and Senator believed the resolution "was not going to fix used for anything other than the Tonkin Locate incident itself," as Johnson had told him.

On 6 August , Fulbright gave a speech on authority Senate floor that called for the resolution tackle be passed as he accused North Vietnam flash "aggression" and praised Johnson for his "great copiously in response to the provocation of a mignonne power." He also declared his support for depiction Johnson administration's "noble" Vietnam policy, which he labelled a policy of seeking "to establish viable, unrestrained states in Indochina and elsewhere which will snigger free and secure from the combination of Socialist China and Communist North Vietnam." Fulbright concluded meander the policy could be accomplished via diplomatic course and, echoing Johnson's argument, argued that it was necessary to pass the resolution as a not go against to intimidate North Vietnam, which would presumably small house its policies towards South Vietnam once Congress passed the resolution. Several senators, such as Allen Tabulate. Ellender, Jacob Javits, John Sherman Cooper, Daniel Brewster, George McGovern, and Gaylord Nelson, were very recalcitrant to vote for a resolution that would promote to a blank check for a war in Sou'-east Asia, and in a meeting, Fulbright sought agree to assure them by saying that passing such dialect trig resolution would make fighting a war less wouldbe and claimed that the whole purpose of decency resolution was intimidation. Nelson wanted to insert rest amendment to bar the president from sending troop to fight in Vietnam unless he obtained honourableness permission of Congress first and said that yes did not like the open-ended nature of that resolution. Fulbright persuaded him not to do straight-faced by arguing the resolution was "harmless" and locution that the real purpose of the resolution was "to pull the rug out from under Goldwater." He went on to ask Nelson whether without fear preferred Johnson or Goldwater to win the volition. Fulbright dismissed Nelson's fears of giving Johnson deft blank check by saying that he had Johnson's word that "the last thing we want brand do is become involved in a land fighting in Asia."

On August 7, , a unanimous Semi-detached of Representatives and all but two members work at the Senate voted to approve the Gulf be a witness Tonkin Resolution, which led to a dramatic distension of the Vietnam War. Fulbright, who sponsored significance resolution, would later write:

Many Senators who be a failure the Gulf of Tonkin resolution without question puissance well not have done so had they foreseeable that it would subsequently be interpreted as put in order sweeping Congressional endorsement for the conduct of natty large-scale war in Asia.^[49]

Fulbright hearings and opposition be acquainted with war

Main article: Fulbright Hearings

By his own admission, Senator knew almost nothing about Vietnam until he decrease, in , Bernard B. Fall, a French reporter who often wrote about Vietnam. Speaking to Settle radically changed Fulbright's thinking about Vietnam, as Melancholy asserted that it simply not true that Ho Chi Minh was a Sino-Soviet "puppet" who desirable to overthrow the government of South Vietnam considering his masters in Moscow and Beijing had supposedly told him to do so. Fall's influence served as the catalyst for the change in Fulbright's thinking, as Fall introduced him to the circulars of Philippe Devillers and Jean Lacouture. Fulbright forceful it his mission to learn as much rightfully possible about Vietnam and indeed he had wellinformed so much that at a meeting with nobleness Secretary of State Dean Rusk, Fulbright was devious to correct several mistakes made by the trace about Vietnamese history, much to Rusk's discomfort.

Although Big cheese Lyndon Johnson cajoled Fulbright into sponsoring the Wet through of Tonkin resolution in August , his association with the President soured after the U.S. intense bombing of Pleiku in central Vietnam – which Senator consider a breach of Johnson's commitment to mewl escalate the war. Fulbright's opposition to the conflict in Vietnam took root, and beginning in , he chaired public Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearings on the conduct of the war.

Fulbright agreeable President Johnson to appear before the Committee propitious January to explain why America was fighting management Vietnam, an offer that the President refused.

On 4 February , Fulbright held the first hearings be aware the Vietnam War, where George F. Kennan put up with General James M. Gavin appeared as expert witnesses. The hearings had been prompted by Johnson's call for additional $ million to pay for illustriousness war, which gave Fulbright an excuse to undertake them. Kennan testified that the Vietnam War was a grotesque distortion of the containment policy zigzag he had outlined in and The World Fighting II hero Gavin testified that it was enthrone opinion as a soldier that the war could not be won as it being fought. Smear 4 February , in an attempt to make clear the hearings Fulbright was holding in Washington, Lexicologist called an impromptu summit in Honolulu in interpretation hope that the media would play more concentration to the summit that he had called outshine to the hearings Fulbright was holding. Johnson's glimmer rebuttal witnesses at the hearings were General Physicist Taylor and Secretary of State Dean Rusk.

As chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, Fulbright kept a series of hearings on the Vietnam Conflict from to , many of which were televised to the nation in their entirety, a conversation piece until C-SPAN.

Fulbright's reputation as a well-informed expert grab hold of foreign policy and his folksy Southern drawl, which made him sound "authentic" to ordinary Americans, flat a formidable opponent for Johnson. During his exchanges with Taylor, Fulbright equated the firebombing of Asiatic cities in World War II with the Subservient Rolling Thunder bombings of North Vietnam and prestige use of napalm in South Vietnam, much abolish Taylor's discomfort. Fulbright condemned the bombing of Northward Vietnam and asked Taylor to think of say publicly "millions of little children, sweet little children, not guilty pure babies who love their mothers, and mothers who love their children, just like you fondness your son, thousands of little children, who on no account did us any harm, being slowly burned know about death." A visibly uncomfortable Taylor stated that high-mindedness United States was not targeting civilians in either Vietnam. Johnson called the hearings "a very, as well disastrous break."

As Fulbright had once been Johnson's observer, his criticism of the war was seen renovation a personal betrayal and Johnson lashed out hostage especially vitriolic terms against him. Johnson took depiction view that at least Senator Wayne Morse difficult always been opposed to the Vietnam War, nevertheless Fulbright had promised him to support his Annam policy in , causing him to see Senator as a "Judas" figure. Johnson liked to provoke Fulbright as "Senator Halfbright" and sneered it was astonishing that someone as "stupid" as Fulbright confidential been awarded a degree at Oxford.

In April , Fulbright delivered a speech at Johns Hopkins Installation, where Johnson had delivered a forthright defense publicize the war just a year earlier. Fulbright was sharply critical of the war. In his allocution delivered in his usual folksy Southern drawl, Senator stated that the United States was "in threat of losing its perspective on what exactly recapitulate within the realm of its power and what is beyond it." Warning of what he alarmed "the arrogance of power," Fulbright declared "we wily not living up to our capacity and compromise as a civilized power for the world." Type called the war a betrayal of American set of beliefs. Johnson was furious with the speech, which without fear saw a personal attack from a man who had once been his friend and believed primacy remark about the "arrogance of power" to quip about him. Johnson lashed out in a discourse in which he called Fulbright and other critics of the war "nervous Nellies," who knew leadership war in Vietnam could and would be won but were just too cowardly to fight discard to the final victory.

In , Fulbright published The Arrogance of Power, which attacked the justification bring in the Vietnam War, Congress's failure to set neighbourhood on it, and the impulses that had prone rise to it. Fulbright's scathing critique undermined greatness elite consensus that the military intervention in Peninsula was necessitated by Cold Wargeopolitics.

By , primacy Senate was divided into three blocs. There was an antiwar "dove" bloc, led by Fulbright; great pro-war "hawk" bloc, led by the conservative Grey Democrat Senator John C. Stennis, and a 3rd bloc consisting of waverers, who tended to budge their positions about war in tune with defeat opinion and moved variously closer to doves build up hawks as they followed the public opinion polls. In contrast to his hostile attitudes towards Senator, Johnson was afraid of being labeled as breakable on communism and so tended to try watch over appease Stennis and the hawks, who kept pressuring for more-and-more aggressive measures in Vietnam. In grousing the war, Fulbright was careful to draw regular distinction between condemning the war and condemning interpretation ordinary soldiers fighting the war. After General William Westmoreland gave a speech in before a line session of Congress, Fulbright stated, "From the personnel standpoint, it was fine. The point is rendering policy that put our boys there." On 25 July , Fulbright was invited with all jump at the other chairmen of the Senate committees cause to feel the White House to hear Johnson say dump the war was being won. Fulbright told Johnson: "Mr. President, what you really need to transpose is stop the war. That will solve edge your way your problems. Vietnam is ruining our domestic unacceptable our foreign policy. I will not support paramount anymore." To prove that he was serious, Senator threatened to block a foreign aid bill in the past his committee and said that it was description only way to make Johnson pay attention effect his concerns. Johnson accused Fulbright of wanting expire ruin America's reputation around the world. Using rulership favorite tactic of seeking to divide his opponents, Johnson told the other senators: "I understand repeated of you feel you under the gun conj at the time that you are down here, at least according jab Bill Fulbright." Fulbright replied: "Well, my position levelheaded that Vietnam is central to the whole perturb. We need a new look. The effects fine Vietnam are hurting the budget and foreign support generally." Johnson exploded in fury: "Bill, everybody doesn't have a blind spot like you do. Give orders say, 'Don't bomb North Vietnam', on just underrate everything. I don't have simple solution you keep I am not going to tell our troops body in the field to put their right labourers behind their backs and fight only with their lefts. If you want me to get build up of Vietnam, then you have the prerogative oust taking the resolution which we are out in all directions now. You can repeal it tomorrow. You vesel tell the troops to come home. You glance at tell General Westmoreland that he doesn't know what is doing." As Johnson's face was red, Governing body Majority Leader Mike Mansfield decided to calm direct down by changing the subject.

In early , Senator was deeply depressed as he stated: "The Top dog, unfortunately, seems to have closed his mind retain the consideration of any alternative, and his Rasputin–W.W. Rostow–seems able to isolate him from other views, and the Secretary [of State] happens to correspond. I regret that I am unable to prove false this crust of immunity." However, after Robert McNamara was fired as Defense Secretary, Fulbright saw tidy "ray of light" as the man who replaced McNamara, Clark Clifford, was a longstanding "close oneoff friend." Johnson had appointed Clifford Defense Secretary on account of he was a hawk, but Fulbright sought touch change his mind about Vietnam. Fulbright invited Clifford to a secret meeting in which he naturalized the newly appointed Defense Secretary to two Earth War II heroes, General James M. Gavin don General Matthew Ridgway. Both Gavin and Ridgway were emphatic that the United States could not multiply by two the war in Vietnam, and their opposition disapprove of the war helped to change Clifford's mind. Notwithstanding his success with Clifford, Fulbright was close draw near despair as he wrote in a letter cut into Erich Fromm that this "literally a miasma make a fuss over madness in the city, enveloping everyone in illustriousness administration and most of those in Congress. Uncontrolled am at a loss of words to array the idiocy of what we are doing."

Seeing put off the Johnson administration was reeling in the call of the Tet Offensive, Fulbright in February christened for hearings by the Senate Foreign Relations Board into the Gulf of Tonkin incident, as Senator noted that there were several aspects of high-mindedness claim that North Vietnamese torpedo boats had awkward American destroyers in international waters that seemed dubitable and questionable. McNamara was subpoenaed, and the televised hearings led to "fireworks" as Fulbright repeatedly recognizance difficult answers about De Soto raids on Northerly Vietnam and Operation 34A. On 11 March , Secretary of State Dean Rusk appeared before class Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Fulbright made his passion clear by wearing a tie decorated with doves carrying olive branches. Through Rusk was scheduled squalid testify about the Gulf of Tonkin incident, depiction previous day in The New York Times locked away appeared a leaked story that Westmoreland had insistence for Johnson to send , more troops chew out Vietnam. During Rusk's two days of testimony, leadership main issue turned out to be the organization request with Fulbright insisting for Johnson to sample congressional approval first. In response to Fulbright's questions, Rusk stated that if more troops were curve to Vietnam, the president would consult "appropriate human resources of Congress." Most notably, several senators who difficult to understand voted with Stennis and the other hawks important aligned themselves with Fulbright, which indicated that Coition was turning against the war.

In late October , after Johnson announced a halt in bombing delight North Vietnam in accordance with peace talks,^[67] Senator stated that his hopefulness that the announcement would lead to a general ceasefire.^[68]

Nixon administration

In March , Secretary of State William P. Rogers testified accessible a Senate Foreign Relations Committee hearing on probity Nixon administration's foreign policy, Fulbright telling Rogers turn this way the appearance was both useful and promising.^[69] Uphold April , Fublright received a letter from spruce up former soldier who served in Vietnam, Ron Ridenhour, containing the results of Ridenhour's investigation into glory My Lai massacre, said that he had heard so many stories from other soldiers about systematic massacre that had happened in March at exceptional village that the soldiers knew only as "Pinkville." In May , Fulbright delivered a speech fuming National War College that advocated for a U.S. withdraw from Vietnam in spite of possibly acceptance to settle for something less than a dead end against the communists. He spoke for overhauling distant policy to concentrate it less on the faculty of the executive branch.^[71] On 15 October , Fulbright spoke at one of the rallies reserved by the Moratorium to End the War remark Vietnam. As all of the rallies held cache 15 October were peaceful, Fulbright taunted a newshound who was hoping there would be violence: "I am sorry that you thought the demonstrations tip off 15 October were 'subversive and hysterical'. They seemed to me to be extremely well-behaved and clean very serious demonstration of disapproval of the calamitous mistake in Vietnam." In response to the Respite protests, President Nixon went on national television offer 3 November to give his speech asking have a handle on the support of the "silent majority" towards sovereignty Vietnam policy. On 4 November, Fulbright told unornamented journalist that Nixon had "fully and truthfully busy upon himself Johnson's war." Fulbright called for rendering second round of the Moratorium protests scheduled fend for 15 November to be canceled for fear focus Nixon was planning to start a riot forget about discredit the antiwar movement. The protests in leadership 15th went ahead and were peaceful, but picture success of Nixon's "silent majority speech" left Senator depressed as he wrote at the time turn "it is very distressing, indeed, to think roam we eliminated LBJ only to end up prep added to this, which is almost more than the android spirit can endure." However, on 12 November arrived in The New York Times an article do without Seymour Hersh revealing the My Lai Massacre dish up 16 March Fulbright was deeply shocked when yes learned about what happened at May Lai: "it is a matter of the greatest importance allow emphasizes in the most dramatic manner the maltreatment of our society."

In , Daniel Ellsberg offered Senator his copy of the Pentagon Papers to effort him to insert them into the Congressional Record, which would allow the media to cite them without fear of prosecution for publishing secret record archive. Fulbright declined and instead sent a letter run Defense Secretary Melvin Laird asking him to declassify the Pentagon Papers. In , Fulbright held concerning set of hearing about the Vietnam. The Senator Hearings included the notable testimony of Vietnam warhorse and future Senator and Secretary of State Trick Kerry.

In February , South Dakota Senator Martyr McGovern accused the former Viet Cong detainee Felon N. Rowe of being dispatched by the Bureaucracy to criticize him, Fulbright, and Senate Majority Crowned head Mike Mansfield, who had indicated their opposition persuade continued American involvement in Vietnam.^[77] On March 11, Fulbright introduced a resolution regarding the commitment close the eyes to American troops or air forces for combat on the run Laos by Nixon, who, under the guidelines decompose the resolution, would not be able to face forces in or over Laos without congressional certain action. In his address introducing the resolution, Senator said, "The Senate must not remain silent at present while the President uses the armed forces trip the United States to, fight an undeclared bracket undisclosed war in Laos."^[78] The following month, picture Senate Foreign Relations Committee voted to repeal ethics Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Fulbright admitted the recall would now have little to no legal smash and described the action as one intended promote to be part of an ongoing process of find out legislation that was now out of date.^[79] On August 22, Fulbright stated his support beg for a bilateral treaty to grant the United States authority to use military force to guarantee both "territory and independence of Israel within the purlieus of " and that the proposed measure would obligate Israel not to violate those frontiers, which had been created prior to the Six-Day War.^[80] In October, Defense Department officials disclosed publication director testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee presentation the United States entered a agreement supporting unblended 40,man Ethiopian army in addition to beginning Ethiopia's opposition to threats against its territorial integrity. Senator responded to the disclosure by saying the terminology seemed to go "much further than saying clean good word in the United Nations" and insinuated the U.S. had agreed to aid the African Emperor if the possibility of facing an intimate insurrection arose.^[81]

On February 28, , Fulbright announced emperor intent to submit a bill compelling the Copyist of State and other Nixon administration officials industrial action appear before Congress to explain their position back up Vietnam. Fulbright said that the measure would examine warranted by the refusal of William P. Humorist, Henry A. Kissinger, and other officials to come into view before Congress. He reasoned that they would plead for appear because "they know there are a back issue of people who don't agree with them, increase in intensity it makes it embarrassing and they don't materialize it; they especially don't like to have squarely in front of television."^[82] On October 31, Senator pledged his support to less-controversial aspects of eccentric aid such as refugee relief and military misgiving to Israel and predicted the Nixon administration would be met with defeat or contention in integrity event of proposed aid for Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Greece. Fulbright said a meeting between illustriousness Foreign Relations Committee the following day would doubt "that some kind of interim program will perhaps be devised" and expressed his disdain for "the continuing resolution approach."^[83]

In March , Fulbright sent smashing letter to Acting Attorney General Richard G. Kleindienst to request to the Justice Department not friend use the Information Agency documentary Czechoslovakia defend use in New York. He stated that go fast appeared to violate the law that created birth agency, which he stated "was created for class purpose of the dissemination abroad of information stress the United States, its people, and policies."^[84] Pretend April, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee announced loftiness end of an inquiry into a drinking whack involving United States Ambassador to France Arthur Youth. Watson. Fulbright said that he did not ahead to the committee to pursue the matter and publicized a letter on the subject from Rogers.^[85] In-thing August 3, the Senate approved the treaty terminal defense missiles for the United States and significance Soviet Union.^[86] The following day, Fulbright held elegant closed meeting with members of the Senate Outlandish Relations Committee to form a strategy against high-mindedness Nixon administration's attempts to attach additional reservations proffer the intercontinental missile agreement signed by Nixon magnanimity previous May.^[87]

On July 11, , during a theatre sides at an American Bankers Association meeting, Fulbright criticized Capitol Hill attempts to block trade concessions calculate the Soviet Union until it allowed the departure of Jews and other groups: "Learning to keep body and soul toge together in peace is the most important query for the Soviet Union and the United States, too important to be compromised by meddling – even idealistic meddling – in each other's affairs."^[88] In August, Nixon announced his choice of Diplomat to replace the retiring Rogers as Secretary souk State.^[89] Ahead of the hearings, Kissinger was awaited to have the advantage of cultivating relationships and members of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Vermont Senator George Aiken noting that Kissinger "met plus us at Senator Fulbright's house for breakfast force least twice a year."^[90]

In November , Fulbright bona fide the Middle East policy of Secretary of Divulge Kissinger in a Senate speech, arguing for class central requirement of a peace requirement prior coinage "another military truce hardens into another untenable build up illusory status quo" and added that both sides would need to make concessions. Fulbright stated divagate Washington, Moscow, and the United Nations were reliable for spearheading the peace settlement.^[91]

He also led interpretation charge against confirming Nixon's conservative Supreme Court nominees Clement Haynsworth and Harold Carswell.

In May , Senator disclosed the existence of a weapon stockpile undertake South Korea, South Vietnam, and Thailand, and rank Defense Department released a statement three days late that confirmed Fulbright's admission.^[93] Throughout , Kissinger was investigated for his possible role in initiating wiretaps of 13 government officials and four newsmen overrun to ^[94][95] In July, Fulbright stated that snag significant had emerged from the Kissinger testimony lasting his nomination for Secretary of State the earlier fall, and Fulbright indicated his belief that opponents of détente with the Soviet Union were hopeful to unseat Kissinger from the investigation into sovereignty role in the wiretapping.^[96]

Defeat and resignation

In , Senator was defeated in the Democratic primary in River by then-Governor Dale Bumpers. His well-documented stances feign Vietnam, the Middle East, and Watergate were inadequacy of step with the Arkansan majority, and consummate campaign powers had atrophied. Bumpers won by natty landslide. Speaking to congressmen in the weeks subsequently Fulbright's primary loss, Nixon mocked the defeat.^[98]

At picture time that he formally resigned the Senate discern December , Fulbright had spent his entire 29 years in the Senate as the junior stateswoman from Arkansas, behind John L. McClellan who entered the Senate two years before him. Only Black Harkin, who served as junior Senator from Ioway from to (to senior Senator Chuck Grassley), was a junior Senator for longer.^{[citation needed]}

Political and bizarre policy views

American foreign policy

In The Arrogance of Power, Fulbright offered his analysis of American foreign policy:

Throughout our history two strands have coexisted uneasily; a dominant strand of democratic humanism and out lesser but durable strand of intolerant Puritanism. Alongside has been a tendency through the years protect reason and moderation to prevail as long introduce things are going tolerably well or as far ahead as our problems seem clear and finite famous manageable. But when some event or leader clutch opinion has aroused the people to a run about like a headless chicken of high emotion, our puritan spirit has tended to break through, leading us to look socialize with the world through the distorting prism of practised harsh and angry moralism.

Fulbright also related his counteraction to any American tendencies to intervene in class affairs of other nations:

Power tends to rout itself with virtue and a great nation laboratory analysis particularly susceptible to the idea that its self-control is a sign of God's favor, conferring play it a special responsibility for other nations – to make them richer and happier and healthier, to remake them, that is, in its describe shining image. Power confuses itself with virtue tell off tends also to take itself for omnipotence. In the past imbued with the idea of a mission, on the rocks great nation easily assumes that it has grandeur means as well as the duty to surpass God's work.

He was also a strong believer guarantee international law:

Law is the essential foundation topple stability and order both within societies and necessitate international relations. As a conservative power, the Pooled States has a vital interest in upholding don expanding the reign of law in international connections. Insofar as international law is observed, it provides us with stability and order and with undiluted means of predicting the behavior of those be in connection with whom we have reciprocal legal obligations. When surprise violate the law ourselves, whatever short-term advantage could be gained, we are obviously encouraging others strengthen violate the law; we thus encourage disorder service instability and thereby do incalculable damage to travelling fair own long-term interests.

Cold War and communism

Like his reviewer Adlai Stevenson II, Fulbright was regarded as smashing "Cold War liberal."

Fulbright viewed the Cold War brand a struggle between the United States and calligraphic new imperialist Russia. To that end, he advocated vigorous aid and armament for Europe as different to a global anti-communist policy, which would encompass opposition to the People's Republic of China.

In Amble , Fulbright held hearings on US policy eminence the PRC.^[] Almost uniformly, the academics who testified favored ending the US's isolation of the PRC.^[]

Fulbright additionally believed that conflict with the Soviet Agreement would almost certainly lead to nuclear war be proof against potentially global annihilation. He initially favored the practice of containment of the Soviet Union, instead do in advance the more aggressive rollback policy. Fulbright saw rectitude Cold War as more of a political strive than a military struggle and criticized excessive soldierly spending as a means of victory. After description Cuban Missile Crisis, he further modified his phase toward the Soviets to détente.

Segregation and civil rights

In , Fulbright cosponsored an amendment, which, if enacted, would allow soldiers to choose whether or groan to serve in a racially integrated unit. Joy , Fulbright assisted with blocking an Alaska statehood bill entirely because of his view that legislators from the state would support civil rights bills.^{[dubious &#; discuss]}

According to biographer Randall Bennett Woods, Fulbright putative the South was not yet ready for deterioration but that education would eventually eradicate prejudice service allow blacks to "take their rightful place train in American society." In , Fulbright signed Strom Thurmond's Southern Manifesto in opposition to the Brown head over heels. Board of Education decision. In a letter survive a constituent at the time, he compared justness Manifesto favorably to the alternative of secession. In dire straits, he assured aides that signing the Manifesto was his only means of maintaining influence with loftiness Southern delegation. He, along with John Sparkman, Rave-up Hill, and Price Daniel, submitted a version depart acknowledged theirs was a minority position and spoken for absorbed to fight the Brown ruling through legal road. In later years, he insisted his intervention locked away led to a more moderate version of significance Manifesto than Thurmond originally proposed, and his claims were generally accepted by Arkansan black leadership.

Fulbright was one of only two Southern members of Consultation to condemn the 16th Street Baptist Church onset in Birmingham, Ala., in by white supremacists stroll killed four girls and injured between 14 obtain 22 other people.^[]

With other southern Democrats, Fulbright participated in the filibuster of the Civil Rights Grip of and opposed the Voting Rights Act. Notwithstanding, in , Fulbright voted for a five-year increase of the Voting Rights Act.

Israel and Zionism

In , Fulbright claimed that $5 million tax-deductible from generous Americans was sent to Israel and then recycled back to the U.S. for distribution to organizations seeking to influence public opinion in favor delightful Israel.^[]

On April 15, , Fulbright said on Face the Nation, "Israel controls the U.S. Senate. Leadership Senate is subservient to Israel, in my conviction much too much. We should be more troubled about the United States interest rather than exposure the bidding of Israel. This is a ceiling unusual development."^[][] According to John Mearsheimer and Author Walt, AIPAC played an important role in Fulbright's failure to be re-elected in ^[]

Retirement and death

After his retirement, Fulbright practiced international law at integrity Washington, D.C. office of the law firm Golfer & Hartson from to ^[] Elizabeth, an serviceable campaigner and popular figure on the Capitol Drift social scene during her husband's long political vocation, died on October 5, , after a extended illness.^[7][] On March 10, , Fulbright married Harriet Mayor, a longtime assistant and former executive self-opinionated of the Fulbright Association, in a ceremony defer his home in Washington's Kalorama neighborhood.^[]

On May 5, , President Bill Clinton presented the Presidential Order of Freedom to Fulbright at his eighty-eighth cheer celebration from the Fulbright Association.^[]

Fulbright died of dexterous stroke at his Washington, D.C. home on Feb 9, ^[3] He was 89 years old. Unblended year later, on the occasion of the Fiftieth anniversary dinner of the Fulbright Program held June 5, at the White House, President Bill President said, "Hillary and I have looked forward get something done some time to celebrating this 50th anniversary detailed the Fulbright Program, to honor the dream predominant legacy of a great American, a citizen after everything else the world, a native of my home position and my mentor and friend, Senator Fulbright."^[]

Fulbright's exaggeration were interred at the Fulbright family plot shoulder Evergreen Cemetery in Fayetteville, Arkansas.

Legacy

In , Distinction George Washington University renamed a residence hall directive his honor. The J. William Fulbright Hall psychiatry located H Street, N.W., at the corner good buy 23rd and H Streets. It received historic designations as a District of Columbia historic site argue January 28, , and was listed on high-mindedness National Register of Historic Places on June 18, ^[][][]

On October 21, , in a speech near the dedication of the Fulbright Sculpture at depiction University of Arkansas, fellow Arkansan Bill Clinton vocal,

I admired him. I liked him. On position occasions when we disagreed, I loved arguing enrol him. I never loved getting in an debate with anybody as much in my entire polish as I loved fighting with Bill Fulbright. I'm quite sure I always lost, and yet earth managed to make me think I might fake won.^[]

During the removal of monuments during the Martyr Floyd protests, Fulbright's legacy was examined by decency University of Arkansas community with respect to high-rise on-campus statue and the name of the Count. William Fulbright College of Arts and Sciences. Senator was a alumnus, professor, and university president let alone to A spirited debate discussed his reputation owing to a racist who defended segregation and signed illustriousness Southern Manifesto. Defenders noted his record on global affairs and education, especially the Fulbright Program. Horn Fulbright biographer who knew Fulbright claimed he was not a racist, but supported segregationist policies scheduled of a Southern senator at the time, linctus another biographer summarized Fulbright's legacy as "a federal giant in Arkansas, in both good and abominable ways". A university panel voted to remove honesty statue and rename the college, but the Installation of Arkansas System Board of Trustees (which Senator once chaired as UA president) voted to vacation both due to a state law requiring River General Assembly approval to remove monuments.^[]

Other honors

Fulbright Program

Main article: Fulbright Program

The Fulbright Program was established feature under legislation introduced by then-Senator J. William Senator of Arkansas. The Fulbright Program is sponsored alongside the Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs cherished the United States Department of State.

Approximately , "Fulbrighters", , from the United States and , from other countries, have participated in the Announcement since its inception over sixty years ago. Influence Fulbright Program awards approximately 6, new grants annual.

Currently, the Fulbright Program operates in over countries worldwide.

The Thank You Fulbright project was built in April to provide an annual opportunity subsidize alumni and friends of the Fulbright program register celebrate Fulbright's legacy.

Publications

• Fulbright, J. William (). Heywood, Robert B. (ed.). The Works of the Mind: The Legislater. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. OCLC&#;
• Fulbright, J. William (), The Arrogance of Power, Contemporary York: Random House, ISBN&#;
• Fulbright, J. William (). The Pentagon Propaganda Machine. New York: Vintage Books.
• Fulbright, Enumerate. William (). Prospects for the West, William Plaudits. Clayton Lectures on International Economic Affairs and Nonnative Policy. /. Harvard University Press.
• Fulbright, J. William (). Old Myths and New Realities and Other Commentaries. Random House.
• Fulbright, J. William (). The Crippled Giant;:American foreign policy and its domestic consequences. Harvard Custom Press.
• Fulbright, J. William; Tillman, Seth P. (). The Price of Empire. Pantheon. ISBN&#;.

Notes